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Linking Words
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Linking words are essential for your writing to be natural and clear.

 

Linking devices vary in three ways:

 

1.   Position in the text.

 

Some linking words normally form a link between clauses WITHIN a sentence. It is bad style to start a sentence with these words:

 

and       but            so            because          then                  until                  such as

 

are examples of this type of linking word.

 

Another type of linking device is used to form a link BETWEEN sentences. These words must start with a capital letter and are usually immediately followed by a comma:

 

Furthermore,            Moreover,             However,            Nevertheless,      Therefore,        In conclusion,

 

are used in this way.

 

Most linking words, however, can either start a sentence or form a link between sentences. The choice is up to the writer.

 

2.      The function of linking words

 

Linking devices are neither nouns, nor verbs. They provide a text with cohesion and illustrate how the parts of the text relate to each other. Here are some of the functions which linking words provide.

 

Adding extra information to the main point, contrasting ideas, expressing cause and effect, showing exactly when something happened (narrating), expressing purpose (why?) and opinion, listing examples, making conclusions and giving emphasis.

 

3.    Grammatical differences

 

Some linking words must be followed by a clause (Subject + Verb + Object).

 

Eg.    while    why          because    although  so    whereas  when

 

Other linking words should be followed by a noun phrase (Linking word + (the) + Noun/Pronoun or gerund)

 

Eg.    because of     despite     during       in spite of

 

The majority of linking devices can be followed by either a noun phrase or a clause.

 

Here is a list of the principal linking words in English, their function and if their position is usually fixed.


Linking words - by Viv Quarry

Adding and

Contrasting

Expressing cause / reason

*and

as well as

besides

Moreover,

Furthermore,

What is more,

In addition,

not only .... but also

another point is that

 

relative clauses

who                  where

that                   ,which

whose              to whom

when                what

why

*but

However,

Although

despite

In spite of

Nevertheless,

On the contrary,

on the one hand

on the other hand,

whereas

while

but while

For one thing,

In contrast,

Neither...nor

because

as

since

As a result,

This is why

because of

Due to

Owing to

For this reason,

 

Expressing effect / result

*so

so....that

such a...that

Therefore

Thus

Consequently,

too...for/to

not enough...for/to

Narration

Expressing purpose

First (of all)

At first

At the beginning

In the beginning

then

next

Before

After

After that

afterwards

When

While

during

Soon

prior to

immediately

Once

Suddenly

As soon as

on

No sooner....than

Hardly...when

Finally

Eventually

At the end

In the end

At last

To begin with,

until

to

so as to

in order that

so that

for (Non-specific)

 

Expressing opinion

I would say that

In my opinion,

I think (that)

I believe (that)

Personally

Apparently,

 

Giving examples

Summing up / concluding

Emphasis

for example,

for instance,

this includes

such as eg. (for example)

i.e. (that is)

All in all

overall

generally

In conclusion,

on the whole

in the main

To sum up,

especially

particularly

Naturally,

exactly because

above all

Whatever

Whenever

too / enough

The more ....

* Avoid starting a sentence with these words.

The linking words beginning with a capital letter often start a sentence, For those without, position in a sentence is optional.

Linking words - Difficult cases

So

AVOID STARTING A SENTENCE  WITH THIS WORD!

 

'So' can be used in two ways:

 

1.      To show RESULT.

 

Eg. It was raining, so we decided not to go to the beach.

 

NOTE! 'because' shows the REASON. The above sentence could be expressed like this:

 

Eg.    We decided not to go to the beach because it was raining.

 

NOTE! To show a REASON LINK BETWEEN SENTENCES use 'Therefore,'.

 

2.      So & such used for EMPHASIS.

 

When used for emphasis, 'So' must be followed by either an adjective or an adverb and must be linked to an explanation  CLAUSE.

 

Eg.    It was so hot that we decided not to go to the beach.

 

OR   We decided not to go to the beach because it was so hot.

 

NOTE! 'such' is used in the same way, but must be followed by a NOUN or ADJECTIVE+NOUN.

 

Eg.    It was such a hot day that we decided not to go to the beach.

 

OR   We decided not to go to the beach because it was such a hot day.

 

NOTE! When there is no explanation clause, use 'VERY', unless referring to a present situation.

 

Eg.    It was very hot yesterday, wasn't it?      It's so nice to see you again!

 

Enough and too

 

'enough' goes AFTER ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS but BEFORE NOUNS.

 

Eg.    You won't pass the exam if you don't work hard enough.

OR   He didn't get the job because he didn't have enough experience.

 

'enough' can also be used alone.

 

Eg. I'll lend you some money if you haven't got enough.

 

'too' means 'more than necessary' and comes BEFORE ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS ONLY.

 

Eg.    The coffee was too hot to drink.

But and  However,

 

'but' is used to CONTRAST  clauses WITHIN A SENTENCE.

 

Eg.    I like going to the beach, but I never go at midday.

 

'However,' has the same function, but is used to show CONTRAST BETWEEN SENTENCES.

 

Eg.    I've always enjoyed going to the beach. However, I never go there at midday.

 

Although, though, even though & In spite of / despite,

 

'Although' must join two clauses, but it's position can change. It can either start a sentence or come in the middle.

 

Eg.            Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed the holiday.

OR       We enjoyed the holiday although it rained a lot.

 

In spoken English 'though' can be used instead of 'although' when it is used for the second clause.

 

Eg.       "I didn't get the job though I had all the necessary qualifications."

 

'though' can also come at the end of a sentence.

 

Eg.       "The house isn't very nice. I like the garden though."

 

'Even though' is a stronger form of 'although'.

 

Eg.       Even though I was really tired, I couldn't sleep.

 

'In spite of' or 'Despite' must be followed by a NOUN, PRONOUN (this, that, what etc.) or ~ING.

 

Eg.       In spite of the rain, we went to the beach.

OR       We went to the beach in spite of the rain.

 

It is common to use the expression 'In spite of the fact (that)....' or  'Despite the fact (that)....'

Eg.       She's quite fit in spite of the fact that she smokes 40 cigarettes a day.

 

Linking words of time - Still, yet and already

 

'Still' tells us that an action is continuing, or hasn't happened yet. It has positive, negative and question forms.

 

Eg.       It's 10 o'clock and John's still in bed.

or         She said that she would be here an hour ago and she still hasn't come.

or         Are you still living in Botofogo?

 

'yet' asks if something has happened, or to say that something hasn't happened. It is mainly used in NEGATIVES & QUESTIONS and comes at the end of a sentence. 'Yet' is usually used with the present perfect tense.

 

Eg.       He hasn't finished the report yet.

OR       Is dinner ready yet?

'Already' is used to say that something happened before expected, it usually comes in middle position, but can also come in final position.  'Already' is not used in negatives and in British English is only used in questions to show considerable surprise.

 

Eg.       I'll tell her that dinner is ready.

She already knows.

 

Have you finished already?! I thought it would take you longer!

 

In order to understand this type of linking word, you must be clear about the concepts of 'a point in time' and 'a period of time'. A point in time is the answer to a 'when' question, and a period of time is the answer to a 'how long' question.

 

Eg.       Points of time = 6pm, Wednesday, she arrived, summer, 1999, Christmas, five minutes ago.

            Periods of time = 3 seconds, 4 days, ages, 100 years, the Christmas holiday, five minutes.

 

During and while

 

Both 'during' and 'while' tell us WHEN something happened. The difference between them is that 'during' is followed by a noun phrase (no verb), and 'while' is followed by a clause (subject + verb + object).

 

Eg.       When did you go to Barcelona?

 

            I went there during my holiday in Europe.

OR

            I went there while I was on holiday in Europe.

 

'By' means 'at some time before' and tells us when something happens. It is followed by point in time and can be used for both past and future time.

 

Eg.       This report must be finished by 6pm.

 

'By the time' has the same meaning but is followed by a clause. It is common with perfect tenses.

 

Eg.       By the time we get there the party will have finished.

 

For, since and until

 

These words all tell us how long something happens. 'For' focuses on duration and can be used in most tenses. It is followed by a period of time.

'Since' is only used with perfect tenses and must be followed by a point in time.

 

Eg.       They stayed in Barcelona for two weeks.

 

OR       They've been in Barcelona since last Friday. = They are still in Barcelona now.

 

'Until' also tells us how long something happens, but the focus is on the end of the action or situation. It is followed by a point in time.

 

Eg.       They stayed in Barcelona until last Friday. = They left Barcelona last Friday.

Not....any more/longer and no longer

 

These expressions tell us that a situation has changed. 'not....any more/longer' go at the end of a sentence and 'no longer' is used in the middle of a sentence.

 

Eg.       Mr. Jones doesn't work here any longer. OR            She no longer works here.

 

As & like

 

'As' and 'like' can be used in COMPARISONS.

 

However, 'As' MUST BE FOLLOWED BY A CLAUSE, and 'like' MUST BE FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.

 

Eg.       He worked for the company, as his father had done before him.

OR       She acts like a child sometimes.

 

'As' can also be followed by a preposition

 

Eg. In 1998, as in 1997, inflation in Brazil fell steadily.

 

'(not) as....as ' + ADJECTIVE or ADVERB shows EQUALITY or INEQUALITY.

 

Eg.       She isn't as tall as her father was.            OR            The traffic can be as bad in Rio as it is in São Paulo.

 

'As' can be used to state the ROLE, JOB or FUNCTION of a person or thing.

 

Eg.       We all worked together as a team.    OR            She worked as a manager in the Human Resources Department.            OR            He used his handkerchief as a flag to attract attention.

 

'As' can be used in the same way as 'because'; however, it gives less emphasis than 'because'.

 

Eg.       As the weather was so bad, we didn't go to the beach.

OR       I bought her some flowers as she had been so kind to me.

 

'As' tells us that actions occur at the same time.

 

Eg.       As the door opened, she saw him standing by the wall.

 

'As' is often used in these common expressions:

 

As hard as, as soon as, as long as, as well as, as far as, as good as.

 

Eg.       He can stay here as far as I'm concerned.            You can go as long as you come home early.

 

'As' is also the preposition used after these verbs:

 

Regarded as                 see sth. as                     be thought of as                 Be looked on as.

 

There are very good practice exercises for linking words in Raymond Murphy's excellent book 'English Grammar in Use'.

So & Such = Unit 101, Enough & Too = Unit 102, Time = Units 110, 118 & 119, Contrast = Unit 112,

As =  Units 115-117.

 

Linking words exercises (Advanced level)

Transitional Words and Phrases

Robert Harris
Version Date: January 2, 2005 
Transitional words and phrases provide the glue that holds ideas together in writing. They provide coherence (that hanging together, making sense as a whole) by helping the reader to understand the relationship between ideas, and they act as signposts that help the reader follow the movement of the discussion. Transitional expressions, then, can be used between sentences, between paragraphs, or between entire sections of a work. The two kinds of transitions are those of logic and those of thought. Each of these kinds is discussed here.

Transitions of Logic

Transitions of logic consist of words or phrases that convey "logical intent": that is, they show the logical connection between two ideas. Since there are several possible logical connections (such as time, purpose, contrast), there are several categories of transitions of logic. The table below lists many of these transitions, arranged by category and listed as milder or stronger. (Note that there is some double listing, because of the different ways words can be used.) Some hints for use:
  • be careful not to use too many strong transitions
  • transitions become stronger when they are the first word in a sentence, milder when they are moved a few words into the sentence
  • keep this list handy while you write, until the words come automatically
Transitions of Logic
  Milder Stronger
Addition a further x
and
and then
then
also
too
next
another
other
nor		 further
furthermore
moreover
in addition
additionally
besides
again
equally important
first, second
finally, last
Comparison just as ... so too
a similar x
another x like		 similarly
comparable
in the same way
likewise
Contrast but
yet
and yet
still
otherwise
or
though
but another
rather		 however
still
nevertheless
on the other hand
on the contrary
even so
notwithstanding
for all that
in contrast
alternatively
at the same time
though this may be
otherwise
instead
nonetheless
conversely
Time then
now
soon
afterward
later
shortly
earlier
recently
first, second, third
next
before
after
today
tomorrow		 meanwhile
at length
presently
at last
finally
immediately
thereafter
at that time
subsequently
eventually
currently
in the meantime
in the past
in the future
Purpose to do this
so that		 to this end
with this object
for this purpose
for that reason
because of this x
Place there
here
beyond
nearby
next to		 at that point
opposite to
adjacent to
on the other side
in the front
in the back
Result so
and so
then		 hence
therefore
accordingly
consequently
thus
thereupon
as a result
in consequence
Example that is
specifically
in particular
for one thing		 for example
for instance
an instance of this
this can be seen in
Summary and Emphasis in sum
generally
after all
by the way
in general
incidentally
naturally
I hope
at least
it seems
in brief
I suppose		 in short
on the whole
as I said
in other words
to be sure
in fact
indeed
clearly
of course
anyway
remarkably
I think
assuredly
definitely
without doubt
for all that
on the whole
in any event
importantly
certainly

Transitions of Thought

Transitions of thought consist of words that help maintain the continuity of thought from one sentence or paragraph to the next. Transitions of thought are produced by the following techniques:Pronouns and Possessive Pronouns. Follow a noun with a pronoun (to continue the same subject) or a possessive pronoun (to move to something related to the original subject).
Fido is asleep. He is a good dog. His house is near the tree.
The oranges are in the kitchen bowl. Eat all you want, but check them for ripeness first.
The Castells must be home from the beach. I see their car in the driveway.

 Pronouns include he, she, it, we, they, us, them, him, her, I, me, and you
Possessive pronouns include his, her, hers, its, their, theirs, ours, our, my, mine, your, yours

 Keyword Repetition. Repeat the word around which the discussion is focusing.
Many cities are overcrowded. But now there is help for the city.
Your gardener can apply this fertilizer to your lawn monthly. Just read the fertilizer label. OR Just ask your gardener about it. OR Your lawn will become greener and juicier.

 Synonyms. A synonym is a word that means nearly the same as another word. The meaning is close enough so that the thought continues, but different enough so that the idea expands and gains greater definition than it would by simply repeating the same word over and over (which would be pretty boring, too, huh?).
Fred’s car is fast and powerful. But is such a vehicle legal? And don’t hot rods like that pollute the air?
We hiked from the meadow to the peak on Monday. Then we walked from the peak to the bluff Tuesday. It was quite a trek.

 Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives. Demonstrative pronouns include this, that, these, and those. They are useful for both direction and emphasis. It is a good idea to change demonstrative pronouns to demonstrative adjectives by adding a clarifying noun (so instead of saying, "This is good," say, "This ice cream is good.").
Some people suggest giving up salt on popcorn. This idea, however, is ridiculous.
Yes, Air Profit is our best selling shoe. That brand, however, is sold out right now.

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